Temat: The United States at wars and armed conflicts since 1865.

1. Mexico 1865
In 1865 France undertook a military intervention in Mexico, which was treated by the United States as an apparent violation of the Monroe Doctrine. The liquidation of the Mexican Empire, which had been created as a result of French military operations, was a lively aim even during the Civil War. Soon after it had been finished, gen. Grant sent to Mexico the corps of 50 thousand soldiers under the command of gen. Sheridan, to contact the rebels of Benito Juarez and hand in to them the weapons from the Baton Rouge arsenal. In the event of any obstacles caused by the French army Sheridan had the right to military actions. The whole operation ended with success. The Mexicans obtained 30 thousand pieces of guns in October 1865. The French foreign minister placed an offer to John Biegel, the American representative in Paris, to withdraw French forces from Mexico, if only Maximlian I could stay on the throne. Biegel did not accept that offer. Seward sent gen. M. Schofield to France. His task was to force France not only to withdraw from Mexico, but to give up supporting Maximilian as well. Finally Napoleon III agreed to all of the American demands. French army withdrew gradually and Maximilian got into hands of Mexican rebels, who killed him in Mexico City on June 19th, 1867. For the United States it was not only the elimination of the European influences from neighboring country, but also the first serious success in executing the provisions of the Monroe Doctrine.

2. War with Spain for Cuba’s Independence. 1898
In February 1895 another anti-Spain uprising burst out on the island. The United States declared its neutrality in June the same year and the Americans were forbidden to take part in any fights. However, as it had happened many times earlier, Americans helped in other ways, by sending weapons, first of all. The rebels counted on the help from the U.S. government because most of sugar and tobacco plantations with production plants worth of 50 million dollars belonged to American citizens. However, the freshly elected McKinley Administration was at the beginning not interested in Cuban matters. But at the time, the American public opinion was, especially after the publication of articles, describing Spanish methods of fight with the rebels. The governor of the island, gen. Valeriano Weyler, introduced the system of concentration camps, in which during almost two years ¼ of the island population died of hunger or other diseases. The anti-Spain moods rose up, as well as the fights in Cuba. At the end on 1897 the American representative in Havana, Fitzhugh Lee, asked its State Department for the U.S. Navy support. In February the just arrived American battleship “Main” drown with the whole crew. It was widely supposed that the Spanish torpedo or mine had caused this tragedy, so the American-Spanish war was just a matter of time. Theodore Roosevelt, the Navy Department Assistant, ordered to George Dewey, the commander of Asian Flight, to destroy the Spanish Fleet if the war erupted.
In March 1898 the USA asked the Madrid government to stop fights in Cuba and leave it independent. When Spain refused McKinley, on April 11th, asked its Congress to give him permission to use the American forces, stationing in Cuba, against Spain. On April 20th America declared war on Spain in the name of Cuba’s independence. (Therefore, since that war, the United States has been regarded as the guarantee of freedom, wherever it’s been violated.)
The war started with American victory on sea in Manila Harbor. The presence of American Navy in the capital city of the Philippines, that landed there on 13th of June, prevented German flight from taking it under its protectorate, which had been planned, taking advantage of the whole war mess. However, the Americans had come there earlier, in order to fight Spanish army there. In that fight the civil people helped Americans, and in September the Philippines were proclaimed the independent republic.
Another front took place in Cuba. Two land battles were held in El Caney and San Juan Hill, and due to those victories the city and port of Santiago could be attacked, which led the Spanish fleet, that had earlier been blockaded, to the attempt of breaking this blockade. In effect the Spanish fleet was destroyed. In two weeks Santiago was occupied by the Americans. In effect, on August 12th the initial protocol was signed in Washington, which then led to signing the peace treaty in Paris on December 10th 1898.



3. Mexico 1914
As a result of a revolution in 1911 Francesco Madero became the new president of Mexico, but two years later the opposition led by Felix Diaz, the nephew of earlier overthrown dictator, led to a coup d’etat. Diaz was supported by gen. Voctorio Huerta, who soon became the dew dictator of Mexico. The newly elected president Wilson, did not approve Huerta’s government, and at the same time, actions aiming at delivering weapons to anti-Huerta opposition started. In April, President Wilson decided to blockade Mexican harbors. Right after this blockade started, there happened a small but extremely important incident. A group of American soldiers from the ships blockading Tampico landed on the shore and was stopped by the soldiers from the local garrison. They were immediately let free, when they turned out to be Americans. The commander of the garrison sent official apologies to Adm. Henry T.Mayo, who however, demanded additional salute from 21 cannons, to honor the American flag. Mexicans refused, so President Wilson decided to treat the whole incident as a good pretext for undertaking a direct intervention to overthrow Huerta. On April 21 Mayo’s ships shelled the port in Veracruz and the unit of 1000 soldier landed and soon occupied the whole city. Wilson then was going to sent his forces to Mexico, but on 25th of April Argentina, Chile and Brazil placed the offer of mediation, which ended the armed conflict for a while.
As a result of the talks that took place in Niagara Falls, Huerta gave up the presidency, and Venustiano Carranaza took the office. But one of his generals, Franceso Villa, was also willing to obtain it. Since the end of 1915 he organized several attacks on American border estates in order to provoke another conflict between the USA and Mexico, after which he would overthrow Carranaza and become the president. Carranaza did nothing with Villa, so Wilson sent a penalty expedition against Villa to Mexico. It counted 15 thousand soldiers, commended by gen. John Pershing. They did not find Villa, but approached Mexico City, so Carranaza sent his government forces against Pershing. Soon a clash took place at Carrizal. Several Americans died and another several were taken captive. This situation would lead to a war, but Carranaza agreed to free the American soldiers on June 16th. In January 1917, after the negotiations, Wilson agreed to withdraw American forces from Mexico, and Carranaza obliged himself to take up appropriate steps to defend the borderland. Villa was soon disarmed and killed.

4. The World War I
When the war erupted in Europe, President Wilson announced the declaration of neutrality on August 4th, 1914. This state of neutrality was, however, rather difficult, mainly, but not only, for technical reasons. After the news about German occupation of Belgium, a neutral country, and relations sent by the American ambassador about spreading hunger, American Relief Committee led by Herbert C. Hoover, started sending food, cloths and medicines to Belgium.
Although Wilson administration first issued absolute ban on granting any loans to fighting parties, soon their mind was changed by the financial deficit in Great Britain and France turnover with the USA, which counted over 1 billion dollars within only a year. So, since September 1915 Federal Reserve Bank had been guaranteeing loans granted by private banks, however favoring the allies-to-be. Mostly because of widely spread opinions about the methods of German fighting on sea. They were said to lead an unlimited underwater war on the Atlantic, which seemed rather impossible at the beginning of the war, because Germans had only 11-12 operating submarines there. Anyway this underwater war brought some losses to Americans, when Germans torpedoed “Gulfright”, a trade ship, in May 1915, and a week later, British “Lusitania”, on which 124 Americans died. The second case had many important consequences. Wilson forced Germany to suspend the underwater war, and then, in December 1915, made Congress agree for extensive war preparations. In March 1916, Germans again attacked a civil ferry, British “Sussex”, in result of which 25 Americans died.
Although Wilson was reelected as the president in 1916 mostly because of his declaration to keep nation out of war, in February 1917 he officially broke diplomatic relations with Germany, after he obtained a copy of the telegram sent to A. Zimmermann, German Ambassador in Mexico, with instructions for Carranaza to attack the USA, if it joined the war against Germany, in return of which Mexico would regain the land lost in the war of 1846-48. Soon next three American ships were drowned by Germany. On April 6th the United States declared war on Germany officially.
In May, 15 thousand soldiers commended by gen. J. Pershing arrived in France. They were stationed in the east of Verdun, where soon more American soldiers arrived. Their first real battle took place in March 1918 at Somma, and then in Flandria. Near Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood, Americans managed to prevent Germans from marching to Paris. Americans also fought at Marna River, pushing Germans back behind Wezela, and at St. Mihiel, where air force supported the fighting strongly. When both sides were preparing to launch an assault against Montmedy, the news about cease-fire came.
In rather short period of American involvement in the war, almost 2 billion American soldiers were sent to France. It was first such huge transport operation in American history. 122 thousand soldiers died, 1/3 of whom from various diseases, especially influenza.

5. Interventions in Russia 1919-1920
After the revolution Wilson did not approve the new Russian government, and refused to take part in Allies’ common action in Siberia. At last, mostly because of fears that Japan would take over that region, he agreed to send American forces to Wladywostok. Those forces were there until April 1920, and their task was to keep control over trans-Siberian rail, in order to help Kołczak’s army fighting against Bolsheviks. When this army was defeated, controlling the rail did not matter at all, so gen. Graves’s corps was withdrawn.
In the northern Russia 13 thousand American soldiers had been included into Ally forces commended by British gen. Pole, that had regularly been fighting the Red Army since July 1918. When these forces did not managed to join Kołczak’s army, Wilson administration decided to withdraw Americans from Russia, starting from May 1919.
In both those operation 139 Americans were killed.

6. World War II
In November 1939 Roosevelt announced a new neutrality act, but again, as it was during the World War I, this neutrality was rather difficult to be held. After the fall of France and Belgium, the USA started war preparations and transferred 50 warships to Great Britain in return for the military bases in New Funland, Jamaica, Bermudas, Bahamas, Trinidad, and British Guyana. (Sept. 40)
In October the USA and Canada, which was at war with Germany, signed an agreement on military co-operation. Within this agreement Canada served as an agent in deliveries of military equipment to Great Britain.
In December Roosevelt announced an extensive program of expanding the US military potential due to which the USA were to become the “arsenal of democracy”
In March 41 the USA took over Greenland from Denmark temporarily, in order to expand the range of escorting operations on the Atlantic O. In June the same year American forces landed in Iceland to build military bases there.
In January 41 Roosevelt announced the program of “Four Freedoms” (speech, religion, self-decisiveness, from fear), which developed into the Atlantic Chart during the meeting of Roosevelt and Churchill on August 11-12. This chart included some common aims of this war among which were: the defense of “Four Freedoms”, the right to self-determination of nations, free elections, economic stability, and also free access to seas and disarming of the war’s aggressors.
In September German battleship torpedoed the American one “Green.” It seemed that the war between those to countries was to erupt soon, but it turned out that it started on the Pacific for Americans. After the fall of France, Japanese forces entered French colonies in Indochina. In return the USA put embargo on some strategic row materials, forbidding their export to Japan. A day after this embargo was introduced Japan signed a pact with Germany and Italy which changed the arrangement of power in the world. The next Japanese move made the USA put embargo on oil deliveries to Japan and freezing Japanese assets in American banks. The new Japanese Prime Minister, gen. Tojo, decided to undertake military actions against America in South-East Asia and on Hawaii.
On November 26th Americans presented 10-point-program to Japan, which among other things included: withdrawing from French Indochina, starting the peace talk with China, giving up the threat of using military power within the region of Pacific. This program was rejected, about which the secretary of state C. Hull was informed on July 12th. Exactly at the same time Japanese air force was bombing the American base in Pearl harbor. All 8 battleships stationing there were drowned. On the next day president Roosevelt announced that America was in war with Japan. At the same time Germany and Italy declared war on the USA.
During the whole war 16.3 million people were mobilized, of which 12.1 million were active at the end of the war in September 1945. War operations were run in two main regions: the region of Pacific and Europe. The process of freeing Europe started in fact with operation of withdrawing Germans and Italians from Africa, in order to clean the field for operations within the Mediterranean region. This operation was named “Torch”. Ground forces were under the command of American gen. D. Eisenhower, while fleet was commanded by British Adm. A. Canningham. Landing of allies started on November 8th 1942, and was aiming at Casablanca, Oren and Algiers, which were taken within two days. In May next year Allies liquidated the German Africa Corps, British took over Tunis then, and Americans, Beset. Within few days Germans and Italians capitulated and since then the allies had controlled in North Africa, gaining an excellent place to start an invasion of Italy
During the conference of Roosevelt and Churchill in Casablanca in January 1943, both leaders agreed for next moves of this war: invasion of Sicily and then Italy, starting strategic bombing of Germany, and unconditional capitulation of the Third Reich as the only way of ending this war.
In the operation Husky – the invasion of Sicily – Americans were represented by 7th Army commanded by gen. G. Patton. Eisenhower was in the command of the whole ally forces. The invasion started on July 9th and was completed within a month. Soon after that the new Italian Prime Minister P. Badoglio announced that Italy decided to withdraw from the war, but allies had already landed there. Although the fight was tough and the enemies defended themselves fiercely, Americans managed to occupy Naples in October 1943. In June 1944 the allies took over Rome. Within several months Americans freed Florence, and on May 2nd 1945 all fights in Italy stopped.
Since the middle of 1944 France had been treated as the main front in Europe. It was there where the biggest and the most important landing operation in modern history was to take place. The D-day was announced as June 6th of 1944. American forces landed in two areas between Port-en–Bessin and Quineville, and then started marching westwards, taking Barneville (June 18th) and Cherbourg (June 27th). Having liquidated the German resistance in Normandy, they went on to Brittany, freeing it in September. Within December American forces freed quite a large part of northern France and stabilized the front in the Ardennes, from where Germans organized a rather strong counter-offensive that brought substantial losses to the allies. From the Ardennes the allies started the invasion of Germany, on February 8th. American armies were to take over the Sarra coalfield. While marching to Innsbruck, Americans got the news about Germans’ unconditional capitulation signed on May 7th 1945.
Now, when the Americans finished their fighting in Europe, they could focus entirely on their second, or even first enemy – Japan.
The operations within the Far East were undertaken in the area of huge ocean and tens of archipelagos or single islands spread in its various sides. So the domination on sea and in the air was essential for the success. Soon after Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, they took over the islands of Guam and the Philippines in January 1942. The loss of the Philippines deprived the Americans of important bases, also for keeping the contact with China.
As a response to Pearl harbor, the Americans undertook an attack on Tokyo. In April 1942, 16 bombers flew to Tokyo from aircraft carrier “Hornet.” Having succeeded in bombing some of their military objects they landed in China and USSR. A month after the Americans achieved another military success, preventing Japanese forces from taking over the Port of Moresby in New Guinea and the Tollage Island, from where Japanese could easily attack Australia. Another month later the Americans managed to defend Midway, on which the American military base was stationed. Both sides suffered from substantial losses, but these were Japanese who gave up Midway, and this was the turning point of the war. Since then the initiative belonged to the Americans. In August 1942 they took over Florida (it’s an island on the Pacific), and occupied a part of Guadalcanal. The whole island was taken only in February 1943. After that the Americans started to realize their strategy of surrounding Japan, occupying strategic points on the Pacific. First they landed on Aleuts, then they took over Gilbert’s Island in November 1943, and in February 1944 they occupied Marshall’s Island. In September 1944 US forces freed New Guinea and in October they started the operation aiming at taking the Philippines back, starting from Leyte. There took a place the biggest marine battle of this war. Japanese losses were so big that they strengthened their land forces, but anyway, US forces took Manila, the capital city, in February 1945. However, the fights with some dispersed corps lasted until July 1945.
Since November 1944 the Americans started strategic bombing of Japanese islands. To shorten the distance for planes to fly, the Americans decided to take over Iwo Dizma, the island 660 miles from Japanese coast. This task turned out to be extremely difficult. Fights lasted 36 days and took 26 thousands American lives. Next the Americans occupied Okinawa, 350 miles away from Japan, which was to serve as another American base to attack Japan. Although US forces were very strong, the fighting lasted until June 1945.
The direct invasion of Japan was discouraged by the experiences of last two operations that involved too many American lives and losses in equipment. Conventional war would last probably to 1947-1948. On July 16th 1945 Americans undertook the first, successfully ended, atomic explosion. Having constructed two next copies, the US government decided to use it in Japan. On August 6th the first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and the other on Nagasaki three days later. Those two bombings paralyzed the Japanese policy makers, and finally led to signing the peace treaty on September 2nd 1945, on the board of Battleship “Missouri”. Gen. Mc Arthur, and Adm. Nimitz accepted the capitulation of Japan.